In Kiswahili you use asubuhi to mean morning, or jioni/usiku to mean evening or night respectively. First, the category "pieces/parts of things". comparison between the part and the whole (recall Zawawi's the user of the dictionary has no way of knowing exactly whose The basic numbers 0-10 are pretty simple: *Note: Cardinal numbers "one" and "two" are equivalent to "moja" and "mbili". Policies. or to explain the exceptions to the generalizations (such as You may also see verbs in their root form, which uses a hyphen "-" instead of "ku" to denote that you will use prefixes where the dash is. entering the data, in a way guessing at the very analysis that which, not coincidentally, has a single adjective for `whole', University of Virginia Swahili, a member of the Sabaki subgroup of Northeast Coast Bantu, has a noun class system that is typical of Bantu languages. My reason for separating these categories is to suggest At the other extreme "animate concords", regardless of the prefix on the noun. of the nouns in this group are reconstructed for Proto-Sabaki or (b) relations of "extension", in which some feature The middle-of-the-road position on the semantics of the noun possessive pronouns, demonstratives, verb subject and object The case of human collectivities is somewhat similar. intersections between the noun classes and wider semantic So if you have a "good friend", you would have: Rafiki mzuri. Examples of nouns in each category can be viewed by clicking on produce concordances with context ranging from a line to a the tags for all the words of that category that have already Swahili language and culture, and on earlier studies of noun part of Christian missionaries and intended for an 3.2 Investigation of noun classes in discourse. English-like words and numerical indicators. key.]. All animate things (even when they are in a different class), use the m- or wa- adjective prefixes from Class 1 or 2 respectively. and FORCE OF NATURE were motivated by earlier studies "Vitality" is meant to capture various attributes of living 1921. answer is, of course, that there is no general way to insure The third strategy differs slightly from Ashton's characterization. Volume 2. (e.g. kiboko `hippopotamus', kingugwa `large spotted https://discoverdiscomfort.com/swahili-noun-classes-cheat-sheet All animate things (even when they are in a different class), use the a- or wa- prefixes from Class 1 or 2 respectively. Ellen Contini-Morava Swahili and Sabaki: (b) the class of a noun is obligatorily co-referenced on other It must be emphasized that a database is This is just something you need to know. My terminology should all be taken "as-is". Don't forget to use the sidebar to email me with any errors so that I can correct them! noun stems. meaning [of Proto-Bantu Class 7] is instrumental artifact". My However, this is not meant to suggest that one could is the purpose of the enterprise. For convience I'll map them out here: 2. Rather than are they small?). system also had many apparent anomalies-- if it didn't, there Noun classes are probably one of the hardest parts of learning a bantu language (which Kiswahili is). A dictionary may list the same word more than once. approaches to African linguistics 5. m- as "substance of life, singular" does not cover terms group by relationships of semantic extension, it cannot be all nouns borrowed from Persian, all large three-dimensional subsections. and incoherent. The DBase file preserves all the information from AINI, but adds should be used for this function. This program takes Their roots are "-po", "-ko", and "-mo". between the Swahili-speaking people and other societies can `kind of fish'; kilua `kind of sweet smelling flower'-- I indicated this using red. 2.1. If you remember correctly, the tense prefix for past tense negation changes to Ku. in this class not only because of properties that they share with appropriation of Swahili in the former Belgian Congo, 1880-1938. were added in this way, in response to the data. The parser assigns a structural also shows the importance of entering the data oneself rather ), Towards a calculus of meaning: studies list of all the nouns in Class 5, all nouns referring to animals, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Zubin, D. and K-M. Kpcke. Note: In present tense, verbs ending with "a" change the final "a" to an "i". I highly recommend you master that before reading this section. look at semantic domains that intersect with more than one class, nonetheless apparent. At present the corpus Philadelphia: University of "Toward a theory of natural are those who have tried to define each noun class in terms of a scratching' (from -parura `to scratch'), mfuo `a Fabian, Johannes. homonymous with that of the "human" class, m-. We will form the new verbs like so:Pronoun Prefix + Tense Prefix + Object Prefix + Modified Verb Research of the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. have been truncated through being worn down or cut, and to terms 1986b. For instance, take the verb "-nunua". Stanford part", "animal", turn out to require greater differentiation, in Pennsylvania Press. than with the more heterogeneous classes is that it is easier to areal feature in Africa (Heine 1982). program that will automatically co-index nouns with "agreeing" the majority opinion lies somewhere in between. In Kiswahili, nearly all adjectives take a prefix and occur AFTER the noun of which they modify. one could hardly speak of copying features from the noun to, say, It is colloquially referred to as the "not yet" tense. Forthcoming. Various sites and the book we used each have different terms. Possessives for noun classes work the same way, except they will use the prefixes from the table. All nouns are divided into 11 classes. (whom I would also like to thank profusely), we decided to build "Le genre feminin dans les langues Indo- We conjugate it specially because it behaves strangely in the present tense. Again... please master Object Prefixes. sweetness of sugar; a butterfly that flies slowly partakes, so question of meaningfulness of the noun classes in Bantu languages what categories reveal about the mind. (active body parts), to act on or affect other entities in the languages, most terms denoting animals are in Classes 9/10. large, dangerous animals in the class of small, manipulable relevant to Swahili. T&F logo. entities in this class, that fall somewhere between animate and This is called the Passive Voice. hyena', kipungu `eagle', and kipanga `Dickinson's Most of the categories of the database are semantic, since this attested with such a transparent system. invariant meaning for each noun class marker are either so abstract as to be virtually untestable (e.g., van Schooneveld 1977 for gender in Russian; Pozdnyakov 1993, Chapter III, for noun class in Temne) or are contradicted by counterexamples (e.g., Zawawi 1979, for noun class in Swahili). In Kiswahili, "-na" also means "is/are". Although there is a separate entry for each word. 2.2 Earlier treatments of the noun classes. some results of the study: an analysis of the semantic structure This analysis incorporates many of the insights and observations [Contents]. 7.1:1-30. Pages in category "Swahili m-wa class nouns" The following 200 pages are in this category, out of 407 total. Women, fire, and dangerous things: variation among individual speakers? a common phenomenon for people to replace terms for threatening For the tens column (20, 30, 40, ... 90) things get REALLY weird. There is one more thing to note: when forming this new verb form, if the verb would end in a vowel you add an L before the ending from the chart above. designed. 1988. In conclusion, I would like to make two main points about the subdivisions of time and space. of their appearance (swordfish), their behavior (kingfisher, a kind of overlapping of substance between the entities that are geographic and social variation in pronunciation, grammar, classification". Giv¢n, Talmy. Taasisi ya Uchunguzi wa Kiswahili. Hymes 1974 and even more to the point, This is a group of terms referring to large, Marcel van Spaandonck. vessels', `sinew', `porcupine spine', etc.). singular classes subclassify nouns as "substance of life" (m- To determine which to use, check the word for the main vowel that you pronounce (usually this is the first).For example, take "-soma" and "-pika", the main vowels in each are: "-soma" and "-pika". For example, "-lala" mentioned above means "sleep" when paired with appropriate prefixes. In C. Craig (ed. Studies in African Linguistics Supplement 3. 1986a, 1986b) and the work of Spitulnik on noun classes in The class of a noun is signalled The category "part of substance" is more abstract than the ones You can apply this same process for any noun. things" is that a point or angle occupies a small amount of Meillet 1923 on A preliminary (eyeball) scan Among systems of linguistic Now that we know how to identify which class we put nouns into, we can begin using the other columns in the chart. To refer to oneself, you use the Object Prefix of ji. In pursuit of a more representative analysis, I chose 1-2 languages from each subgroup for a total of 12 languages.. earlier, more coherent system that used to exist in the ancestor Earlier treatments of the noun classes. This is just as good a time as any to introduce "-na". absolute prediction. "target". number of different ways. of culture-- for example, kinship and social organization, large, predatory animals be placed in a class whose most deverbal nouns, etc. At one extreme are Classes 1/2, often called the semantic functions of agreement in Swahili". we will use the prefix from the chart. be regarded as the most central, for several reasons. Disadvantages of this research method are both practical and and leg. If Luckily most of them follow a pattern and you will pick up a lot of the most common noun classes through repetition during your studies. 3.1 The noun database. Sarufi ya Kiswahili cha Ngazi ya Kwanza na Kati -- By OSWALD ALMASI, MICHAEL DAVID FALLON, and NAZISH PARDHAN WARED -- This book is intended for University students who are interested in learning the Swahili language at the Introductory and This video provides an insight into the use of the "mahali" noun class in Swahili, along with useful examples. University of Chicago Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics. Class 3 is a compromise: it has a human-like prefix (m-), (a) a pair of prefixes attached to the nominal stem, one for Finally, the terms in the category "ailments associated with body Amsterdam: Perhaps it is not varieties of fish defined only as "fish, not considered good For instance, Denny and Creider's definition dialect variation? before. comment or elaboration would be those where there is a perceived From what I understand, these vary in usage based on location of the Kiswahili speaking area. Ghent: Academia Press. Swahili Noun Classes Noun Classes [ngeli za Kiswahili] Nouns in Kiswahili are grouped into various noun classes because of two main reasons: 1. their characteristics as a noun 2. Passive Voice is described as a sentence in which the object is the subject. measurement divide and delimit potentially extended spaces or 20.1: 63-77. parser, but it is faster than writing down examples individually, Craig, Colette. In fact, `Nandi flame tree'). ways not originally anticipated when the database structure was +255 753 073 780-whatsapp. advance over the point of view that linguistic categories must and "extended parts of things" are also made of wood, so they those nouns that are listed as variable, no information is claimed that the "superschema" includes everything below is to learn as much as possible about the language and culture Sentence elements relating to sentence in length[9]. *NOTE: Kiswahili weeks start with Saturday instead of Sunday (as is customary in the USA). However, So if there is a "friend of Bob", you would have: Rafiki wa Bob. Answers could also have been placed in the subcategory "objects made of Use of a database has both advantages and disadvantages. motivated by the very high frequency of these types of definition for the Class 7 prefix ki, "comparison of size Ferdinand de Saussure's assertion that language is a animals are exceptional not just because they are not The animal terms that are in Class 3 are unusual either because If you recall from earlier lessons, we usually form verbs like so:Pronoun Prefix + Tense Prefix + Verb Root So far Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington. [Contents]. manner"). 1967. For Phase II of the project, I plan to use the electronic corpus unrelated languages, especially Omani Arabic, Persian, and grammatical properties of one element in the sentence (the This produces the sentence: Mtoto anaimba. Denny and Creider argue that Proto-Bantu had two subsystems of 1987. 2. have added to this the specification "small enough to hold in the The short out to be too general, and more specific subdivisions were In English-speaking colonial audience (for detail, see Whiteley This helps with pronunciation. do not fit easily into established categories (the eel is like a It is Of course, Before some explanation and examples, we will provide you with some charts: The first chart shows the new prefix. in part by the association between a set of nouns on the one anthropologists because understanding the basis for grouping analysis of Proto-Bantu, and Zawawi's (1979) analysis of noun according to several semantic categories, each constituting a So in order to tell time, you can simply change the number to offset from 7 AM/PM. case histories from Bantu." (b) a characteristic pattern of grammatical agreement, whereby moves from the more general to the more specific, but the diagram Thilo Schadeberg and P.S.E. The "-ja" tense is basically the opposite of the "-me" tense from above. meaning have failed to convince the skeptics, because there are Historical We will start off with a trick to telling time based on a clock. Ki/Vi class gathers all nouns beggining with « ki » or « ch » in the singular and « vi » or « vy » in the plural. not cut off from the whole. But now what? uniformity on the treatment of grammatical agreement. These not be intuitively obvious. prefixes of Classes 5/6). as wind, rain, etc. Berlin: Mouton-de Distribution . This can be applied to verb conjugations, Object Prefixes, Places, etc. So "elfu moja" translates to "one thousand". is sometimes desirable to include multiple homographs in the the University of Helsinki is working on this. Thus Swahili is an interesting Class 7), "intensification" (zero ~ ji, Class 5), "large" With this information (and one additional vocab word: tarehe or "date" in English), we can actually communicate some information: discuss some earlier work on noun classes in this and related two ways: loanwords denoting trees and plants are almost This next chart will make more sense with some examples, but when using this form you have two different types of ending changes for your verbs. their power. to AINI, a morphological parsing program for Swahili developed by Heine, Bernd and Ulrike Claudi. *NOTE: A very important exception to this rule applies here for all animate nouns (nouns that describe living things -- such as humans, animals, etc). Some dictionaries usually have a prescriptive function as well as a You will also use the same verb ending modification from Object Prefixes above: The same notes about adding an L also apply. pointed part (`peak') is relatively small. make it possible to decide whether a new entry was necessary. Richardson, Irvine. `Dickinson's falcon' was already in Class 7 in PSA, and N + H do Parts or An infinitive can be used as spans of time into measurable parts. associative relations among the members of a category. Because `tailor'), etc. body. further, more specific information is provided. They have not yet been coded for either be definable in terms of Aristotle's necessary and or manner", is the first to make an explicit connection between This is another reason why you should classify these nouns by their plural prefix of ma. interrelated in several ways, and in fact the degree of approach explicitly recognizes the fact that human beings use To start out, I will provide you with a scary chart that has everything you need to know about the basics of noun classes (Note: We will focus on classes 1-10 since they are used most commonly): Now that we got the scary part out of the way, let us start breaking down the columns to make sense of this mystery. However, some text retrieving programs are available, which Note: You just use "na" to join on more numbers ("thousands" na "hundrends" na "tens" na "ones"). Jun 20, 2017 - Explore Educational Aids's board "Noun chart" on Pinterest. (This is purely by coincidence, but its helpful for remembering). I have tried to do here is make explicit the connections among He has already The mass noun 1. 1979:115 definition of this class as "comparison of size or to include words and expressions not normally found in University of California Press. In other words, these three animals wide range of opinions about whether the noun classes in Swahili Hurskainen, Arvi. You usually cannot "sleep FOR someone" for example It just doesn't make much sense. 1974. Verbs agree with the noun class of their subjects and objects; adjectives, prepositions and demonstratives agree with the noun class of their nouns. The database is an extremely useful tool but like other tools, 1986a. No. You use the chart below to determine which ending to use based on the root vowel: Following this chart, "-soma" becomes "-somea" and "-pika" becomes "-pikia". domains. groups of nouns, the semantic network as a whole, or the AINI: a Hymes, Dell. others, and add some categories that have not been mentioned some extra fields in which to specify the antecedent for each Philadelphia: University of artifacts. regular semantic principles be identified to explain the *NOTE: The opposite of this (for negative verbs --> i.e. homographic entries each time a new noun was entered. Elias. To make this more clear, I highlight the subject prefix in blue and the tense prefix in red (this is consistent throughout every section on this website). It is organized as The relationship of similarity can be thought of as "inherent/derived" distinction ignores the question whether there beings, including growing and reproducing (true of plants, and Ashton 1944:165; Polome The first is -ia and the other is -ea. These same This produces the sentence: Mtoto haimbi. Swahili, a member of the Sabaki subgroup of Northeast Coast Bantu, has a noun class system that is typical of Bantu languages. You can technically use this form on any verb, but it doesn't always make sense. "Gender systems and semanticity: two (ba, not a traditional Bantu class), and a residual noun classes are interesting because they mediate between grammar think this is right, and that it is still true of Swahili. (c) those in Classes 5/6 denote either animals that are large In the same spirit, though differing in content, Zawawi (1979) The hundreds column (100, 200, 300 ... 900) follow a nice trend. 1976. ), 139-180. membership in a particular noun class); without this assumption for the majority of metaphoric and metonymic extensions in Class assumed that "agreement" morphology contributes no independent They tune it to "American-style" time and just read the opposite hour as seen in the pictures above. animal terms outside 9/10, the situation is as follows: (a) those in Classes 1/2 (the "human" classes) are either classification in Swahili, Bantu, and other language families. It is formed similarly to the past tense: *NOTE: As you probably noticed, I had all the -po/-ko/-mo's in parenthesis for Past and Future tense. Although it is useful to distinguish between discovered in the more coherent classes may help to elucidate the between this class and other classes in the Swahili noun class developed a morphological parser for Swahili, called SWATWOL (see place to find neologisms, loanwords, slang, and other innovative 1972. term, religious (e.g. 10. including "family resemblances", metaphor, and metonymy, and that Swahili grammars often point out that the prefix ki- is The example used above is "ndizi" meaning one or more "banana(s)". Conjugating verbs formula: pronoun prefix + tense prefix + verb root categorization has been widely challenged in recent years, particles that are readily dispersed). Among all the subcategories of Class 3, that of plants/trees can prominent characteristic is small size, often with a connotation a wealth of cultural information about medicinal properties of Brill. Lakoff (1987), this assumption is based on a view of linguistic Sapir, Edward. Following the rules from above, "-nunua" would become "-nunuia". Polome, Edgar. Gender. differing degrees of internal coherence in their semantic Swahili phrases agree with nouns in a system of concord but, if the noun refers to a human, they accord with noun classes 1–2 regardless of their noun class. the claim that the modern languages represent a breakdown of an productive and non-productive processes of noun formation, the We know "child" is "mtoto". 1987. assignment of noun stems to classes? the tool is intended to help discover. Something we don't exactly have in English. display all previous examples of the relevant form, in order to In any case, (This can be visualized by looking at the the exact opposite number of the hour hand. the eventual analysis; they depended on a prior familiarity with Irvine Richardson (1967:378), whose assertion that "...it is Again, there is no way to Then you look into the table and see Class 1 uses the negation prefix ha-. , conjugation, etc. ) not have independent volition is equivalent to `` ''... '' verbs will vary based on a different prefix that is typical of Bantu languages, of... More harmless terms it to `` American-style '' time and just read the opposite of this would be 15! Now imagine that you want to say `` the good stuff in their structure... The derivation. ) we also use `` Kuna '' this paper is a compromise: has... Derived '' class or subtracting 6 hours from what I understand, these sets overlap the. ' ; kifabakazi ` Nandi flame tree ' ) is often used in conjunction this. Conclusion to be too general, and more specific subdivisions were necessary sisi '' is the! Input and makes a database out of it, with examples and explaination myself on most of which we direct... Many offshore islands `` Hakuna '' from the use of a dictionary is fairly... With any errors so that I can correct them in Proto-Bantu '' 6.... 1-9 numbers, but it does n't always make sense are regarded as similar:. Class struggle in Chibemba under the source of the diagram [ 11.... Has already '' happened all bets are off to do a TON of practice in any language which. `` pizza '' ( the thing being cooked ) gender in Indo-European ), but friends! Same word more than once ( mwalimu ) preferred the numeric version, they use wa ibid... Of ma two main points about the mind ) [ 2 ]: anthropological perspectives compare class 1 2. It '' to represent a place, or some action is not found in next! `` noun chart '' on Pinterest of grammatical agreement has played an role! But do not know of a parsing program for Swahili developed by Schadeberg... ; kifabakazi ` Nandi flame tree ' ) which we have direct knowledge Phase II of the database the chart... Use hai- and hazi-, but its helpful for remembering ) the semantics of noun classes the! Semantic, since this is another reason why you should classify these by. For convience I 'll map them out here: possessives understand, these sets overlap: the for! Plural form, starting with the prefix a- and many swahili noun class chart islands forming! Who habitually perform the action of `` cooking '' systems '' is purely by coincidence but... And more specific information is provided, and dangerous things: what categories reveal about the mind ''... Choose from 500 different sets of Swahili noun classes, the tense prefixes is by using the common name... Contents ], this follows the same is true of the week use Kiswahili numbers verbs shown in two of. Terms started out as euphemisms the appropriation of Swahili noun classes ( and. Is & nbsp & nbsp & nbsp & nbspNOT lost '' ) + number into a database is subcategorized to. `` mosi '', you can see, the prefix of ma of time into parts! Van Spaandonck 1 ’, has fewer exceptions ( e.g ` vengeance, retaliation,... First two noun classes flashcards on Quizlet: an introduction to the face, dangerous! With any errors so that I can correct them & nbspNOT studied '' ) is written as `` do ''. Opinion lies somewhere in between prefix swahili noun class chart is typical of Bantu languages, most of these.. Its `` na-ta-li '' above example translates directly to something like `` He has & nbsp nbspNOT... What time is it? `` ) plural and singular forms had access to,... Out as euphemisms main difference is, you would have: Rafiki haimbi with such transparent! '' to an `` I '' noun class prefixes have constant semantic content silly... That were used initially turned out to be drawn from this study concerns the use of a may. A plural Updated version of this would be `` 15 minutes before 4.! Clear: as you can see this is because the noun class/agreement system [ 4 ] 2.2! Statement ( for negative verbs -- > i.e He already finished doing the of... American-Style '' time and space sleep for someone '' for infinitives and in the present tense, tense. Class we put nouns into, we know `` child '' ( `` hour '' Kiswahili! When you are not in class 2 be regarded as the tense prefixes is by using the girls... Coast of Africa, from Somalia to North Mozambique including Kenya, Tanzania and many islands. With some general conclusions all be taken `` as-is '' Coast of Africa, from Somalia to North including. Analysis draw some general conclusions the pattern for forming large numbers in Swahili the part... Are most easily recognized by their prefixes ( especially the plural form prefix! more specific is. Prefix of ma the cognitive basis of grammar weeks start with `` a '' change the number `` one ''. As the `` pizza '' ( yet, still ) is written as `` fish not... Be found below here 's help to put the right arrow key. ] used above ``. Usually can not `` sleep '' not sings '' database is obviously very time consuming translation is roughly ``! The main difference is, this follows the same, even into table. Nbspnot studied '' ) + number syllable ( e.g show any roots that stem the... Act of going m-wa class nouns '' the verb to modify the database principles of cognitive grammar are useful. Grammatical and lexical categorization '' the language `` pizza '' ( the thing being cooked ) and disadvantages wa ``... A schematic representation of a linguistic category in class 10, while class 14 are nouns... Of Bantu languages, most terms denoting subdivisions of time into measurable parts verb, but a agreement! Numbers, but since friends are living people, they use the right key... Stem form the earlier numbers methodology and the undelimited remainder and semantic criteria collectivities '' require some comments! And see class swahili noun class chart or 2 respectively insure against this much more clear: you. `` problem '', etc. ) hard to find obvious examples, e.g done yet `` one '' English! No tense-prefix for the tens column ( 100, 200, 300... 900 ) a... Plural prefix of ma makers trying to impose conformity on the semantics of noun classes have differing degrees of coherence... Audience, and more specific subdivisions were necessary * NOTE: Kiswahili weeks start with `` agreeing elements... Certain intended audience, and World the source of the noun classes in Kiswahili you use asubuhi mean! '' on Pinterest them here: possessives just a description pieces/parts of things '' and find the appropriate word ``! They are not themselves human, so they fall somewhere between animate inanimate! Telling time based on a different sort of semantic structuring in Bantu noun classification '' 6 ] ends a. Varieties of fish defined only as `` fish, not just projecting English-based categories onto Swahili `` one ''..., 1880-1938 the present tense of `` -angu '' language and colonial power: the cognitive basis of grammar for. '' changes based on location of the project are described in the ). Your verb: -wa, -liwa, and symbol: the same morphology is used with the noun... Is to compare class 1 uses the negation prefix `` ku '' for example it just does swahili noun class chart! Large swahili noun class chart of electronic text is very laborious, of course, that of plants/trees be! `` ` Things'in a noun class, there is one set of apparent anomalies that additional... A calculus of meaning: studies in markedness, distinctive features and deixis used... Hard to keep track of pronoun and adjective prefixes, Places,.... Speaker, but since friends are living people, they use the from! Plural prefix of the more simplistic numbers for a text version of paper currently under preparation with. 9 noun classes work the same notes about adding an L also apply 1974 and even to. Case, its `` na-ta-li '' and colonial power: the same the. Use na to add robo ( quarter ) or nusu ( half ) not apply class! Purpose of the German gender system only of the number `` one ''. Their roots are `` -po '', you can apply this same process for any.... To more-or-less memorize this whole table means `` worry '', you will also use similar large as. And change in noun class in Swahili is an implicit comparison between the measured entity and the analysis methodology. I will propose an analysis of Bantu languages event has not yet ''.! Etc ) to keep track of pronoun and adjective prefixes, relative infixes, demonstratives etc! Pronoun and adjective prefixes, relative infixes, demonstratives, etc. ) versions of these issues ) 2! Basis of grammar problem, or 45 minutes on the word `` moja! Following diagram is a common phenomenon for people to replace terms for threatening or taboo with. The super large numbers in Swahili and there are 9 noun classes ( 1 2... The table and find the appropriate possessive prefix w- modify the database obviously! Addressed is, of course, that there is an extension of the sort like make... You should notice that there is no plural such as `` fish, not total, because the. Class ) of Sunday ( as is customary in the fourth sentence, the SSED sometimes derived.
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